"You painters who ask for a technique of colors, study carpets. There you will find everything that is knowledge." PAUL GAUGUIN "
The art of Turkish carpet weaving is a fascinating adventure which began in the 13th century and continued until the end of the 17th century; it has an important place in the world's history of art. In this period, carpets not only appeared in museums throughout the world, which they fully deserved, but also they had become essential pieces in private collections. In the centuries mentioned above, carpets were used as subjects in many miniatures, and in both the paintings and the frescoes of Italian, Dutch and Flemish artists. These works of art enriched further the prosperous and productively artistic period between the Seljuks and the later Ottomans. These works, like visually inspiring carpets, are masterpieces in museums and important collections today. It was mentioned before that many European artists had used Turkish carpets in their paintings from the beginning of the 13™ century. Some of thesecarpets, whichbelong to aparticular period, are called after Hans Holbein in art history throughout the world, as the artist used these carpets many times in his paintings. So, let us study Hans Holbein's identity before studying "Holbein Carpets" which had an important place in carpet weaving art. Hans Holbein was a German artist who lived between the years of 1497-1543. He studied in Brussels for some time, and then with the invitation of the English king, Henry VII, he went to England and settled there. Holbein, who was a Renaissance artist, was an acute observer and had a character that gave importance to detail. In 1532, in his work named The Portrait of George Gizse', he did not limit himself within classical Renaissance rules and he turned towards his own new definitions.
Although Holbein did not have any relation with carpets directly, some carpets which belonged to the particular period are called 'Holbein Carpets'; the aim behind his is the classification of a specific period in art history. It is possible to classify Holbein carpets, which can be assumed to be the continuation of Seljuk carpets, into four main groups. First, the carpets found in Konya Alaaddin Mosque and those found by Reifstahl in the year 1932, in Beysehir Esrefoglu Mosque and which are preserved in Konya Mevlana Museum's collection today, are assumed to be the pioneers of Holbein carpets. The carpets found in Esrefoglu Mosque belong to the first half of the 15th century. Although they are called Holbein Carpets, the carpets which belong to the first group had a place in paintings of Italian artists a long time before Holbein's birth. The first group of Holbein carpets were seen very often in the paintings of European artists. The backgrounds of these carpets are divided into octagons (which are repeated regularly) and squares (the squares are placed in such a way that they fill the vacant spaces). The colour changes, which are adapted to the motifs, can be assumed as a typical characteristic of these carpets. Two different types of colour adaptation were made, especially for the double rumis, which were placed in the squares and in the opposite edges. The colours used in the background are red and blue; green is rarely used. In the borders of these carpets, belonging to this group, the Kufic letters, which are characteristic of Seljuk carpets, are united with small rosettes, developing to the flowered Kufic letters.
The Kufic-lettered borders were developed in the shape of a plait, and this has been in Raffaelino del Garbo's collection in the Berlin Museum, which were also included in his paintings that were burnt in the war. In the frescoes, which were painted by Piero della Francesca in the Rimini San Francisco Church in 1451, we come across the earliest examples of these types of carpet. Francesca painted Sigismund, the prince of Rimini, on his knees on an early period Holbein carpet. In 1459, Mantegna defined the same carpet at the altar of San Zeno Church in Verona. Similar carpet definitions are seen in Baldovinetti's famous work 'Glad Tidings', which was found in San Miniato near Florence in 1460. Credi's painting, painted in 1480, and in Pistola Cathedral now,and Although some of the Turkish carpets are known with different names such as "Holbein, Lotto and Memling" it is known these weavings were available much before these painters' births. V. Carpaccio's painting, 'Saint Ursula', painted in 1495, has been preserved in the Venice Art Academy. The second group of Holbein carpets, the first examples of which belonged to the beginning of the 15th century, and in which the vegetal motifs were used regularly, have nearly the same scheme as the first group, although they look very different.
The motifs began to lose their geometrical character typical of the first group, but Holbein found a counter to this and changed some motifs comprised of rumis and palmettes which are tied to each other symmetrically with thin or single threads or stalks. In the designs, which look as if they were continuing for eternity, especially with the impact of the yellow palmettes and rumis and their adaptation to the red background, there is great charm. The borders of these carpets, which are changing to a dark blue background, are generally styled with motifs such as rumi leaves in cream, clouds and octagonal shapes. Cloud motifs and the octagonal shapes remind us of the borders of classical Ushak (Usak) carpets. A type of motif enriched with curved branches can be seen in the borders. However, Hans Holbein did not use these types of carpets in his paintings, lit was the Venetian artist, Lorenzo Lotto, who used this type, which is also called "Turkish Arabesque", very often in his paintings, and these carpets are called after his name. Lorenzo Lotto painted these carpets in his altar painting, which is in the Venice San Giovanni Paola Church, and also in one of his paintings which is in the London National Gallery. In fact, Lotto carpets can be seen in periods much before the time of Lorenzo Lotto.
We have come across them in Italian paintings since 1516, in Portuguese after 1520, and in Northern European and English paintings after 1550. It is also possible to see these carpets in Italy, in a group of portraits which were painted by Del Piombo and in Longhi's paintings in Berlin's Gemalde Galerie. Lotto carpets, the first examples of which were seen in the 15th century, suddenly disappeared from European paintings after the end of the 17th century. In the pattern style of the third group of Holbein carpets, the beginning of a change can be observed. In the background of the third group, there is a simple design, comprised of two, three or four squares, that is filled with octagons. Also in the octagons there are stars, stylised geometrical motifs and vegetal motifs. In some of the examples, the motif of the border gives the impression of turning between the squares which are similar in size. In the borders, the Kufic letters, which are decorated with rosettes and Chinese clouds, are dominant.
This pattern style, which has been developed through the 15th century, can be assumed as the continuation of the geometrically patterned carpets, known from 14*" century European paintings and from animal patterned Anatolian carpets. The third group of Holbein carpets were known in Europe much before Holbein, also. Examples were seen in 1468, in Marco Constanzo's 'St. Gerolamo' painting which is in Syracuse Cathedral and in 1476, in Antonello del Massina's 'St. Sebastian' painting which is in the Dresden Gallery. In Carlo Crivelli's 'Glad Tidings' painting, which is in London's National Gallery, a carpet that is an example of the third group has been painted as if hanging loosely from a balcony. Also, in one of Ghirlando's paintings, which is in the Uffizi Museum, Florence, a carpet belonging to the same group, was used under the sofa on which the Virgin Mary is sitting. Antonella de Messina's painting 'Saint Sebastian' is an important example which also documents the third group of Holbein carpets.
The Italian Renaissance artist, Carlo Crivelli, used a carpet from the third group of Holbein carpets which again is hanging loosely from a balcony in his paintings 'Annunciation' (1486), which is in London's National Gallery, and in 'Annunciation' (1482), which is in Frankfurt's Kunstinstitut. It can be seen in all of these paintings that the background designs of these types of carpets are comprised of Kufic borders and octagons that are changed into stars. Although the above paintings of Crivelli have the same characteristics as the Holbein carpets in pattern style, it is seen that they are decorated with different motifs. For this reason, this type of carpets are called Crivelli carpets. The original of the Crivelli carpets is a fragment which is in Budapest's Applied Arts Museum. This carpet, which belongs to the end of the 15th century, shows an example of a yellow background which is comprised of colourful and angled octagonal star motifs. The patterns in some parts are comprised of stylised four legged animal and bird motifs, which remind us of early animal patterned Anatolian carpets. Spiral leaves in red and yellow are used on a dark blue border; this shows some similarities with the Bergama carpets of the 19th century and with the Holbeins which are in Istanbul's Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum. However, Hans Holbein used this type of carpet in his paintings much later. In his painting, 'Elciler' (Delegates) from"! 533, a carpet from the third group is draped on a table.
The fourth type of Holbein carpets were developed from the third group; their pattern style is comprised of a large octagon and two small octagons (the latter are placed both under and above the large octagon) that are in the middle of the background. With the fourth type of Holbein carpets, the customary pattern style, which is comprised of periodical repeats and which look as if they are continuing until eternity, had disappeared. This new pattern style, although accepted to have been influenced by the ! Memluk carpets by some carpet experts, has some important similarities with the two carpets which are assumed to be the examples of the third group of Holbein carpets; these are in Istanbul's Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum and belong to the beginning of the 16th century. In the first of these carpets, which belongs to the museum collection, two large squares are placed one above the other on the background and, for each of them, two octagons are placed both under and above these squares. In the second, the pattern, which makes up the group, is repeated twice. The knitted Kufic border of the 4th group of Holbein carpets, strengthens the carpets' Turkish identity. Hans Holbein's painting, 'Delegates', provides evidence which shows that the fourth type of Holbein carpets is not a Memluk, but a Turkish carpet. That the border of this group is nearly the same as the border of the third group, and from this carpet painted in the picture 'Delegates', this can be easily proved. Furthermore, it can be seen that the small octagonal units, which were used in the fourth group, are created from the small octagons that were used in the first group of Holbein's background pattern style. There are also other types of Holbein carpets which were exported to Europe in the 15th century and which can be seen especially in Flemish paintings. These were also classified by art historians according to the names of the painters.
The examples with geometrical or octagonal stars and knot and star grouping included those painted by Gerard David and especially by Hans Memling in the last half of the century. The medallions, with hooked borders, which were repeated in the carpets that were used by Hans Memling in his paintings, are called The Rose of Memling. These carpets have many similarities with the third group of Holbein carpets in terms of the octagons in the squares and their groups. As we have mentioned at the beginning, in all of the Holbein carpets, which have become one of the most important elements of the art world with their richness of pattern and their original colours, usually single twisted red and brown wool is used rarely in the warp, and only double twisted white, soft wool is used in the weft. These carpets are knotted with the Gordes knot. In the knots, always, double twisted, thick and soft wool was used.
The carpets which belong to the first and second groups are more closely woven than the carpets which belong to the third and fourth groups of carpets. Two types of red, white (which is the natural lamb's wool colour), cadmium yellow, dark brown, oil and walnut green were used. Furthermore, purple, which is not seen in Seljuk carpets, began to be used with the Holbein carpets. In these carpets, a 5-1 Ocm. woven matting was added both to the beginning of the warp and to the end of it.